Innovative Approaches to Atherosclerosis Treatment: Nanomedicine and Herbal Remedies | InformativeBD

Shafee Ur Rehman , and Kudaibergen Osmonaliev, from the institute of Kyrgyzstan. wrote a review article about, Innovative Approaches to Atherosclerosis Treatment: Nanomedicine and Herbal Remedies. Entitled, Innovative approaches in atherosclerosis treatment: A comprehensive review of nanomedicine and herbal medicine strategies.This research paper published by the International Journal of Biosciences (IJB).  an open access scholarly research journal on Biosciences. under the affiliation of the International Network For Natural Sciences | INNSpub. an open access multidisciplinary research journal publisher. 

Abstract

CVD or cardiovascular disorders are one of the major factors causing significant increases in mortality worldwide. One of the major infections in the heart’s blood vessels is atherosclerosis, which is mainly caused by the deposition of fats, high blood pressure, and diabetics. The use of synthetic medicine can cure cardiovascular disorders. Although some side effects have been observed using synthetic medicine. With the recent advances in technology especially biotechnology, the scientific community now looking for new and useful treatment methods, among them Nanomedicine and herbal medicine are some of the significant approaches for the cure of cardiovascular disorders. In this study, we reviewed the current status of Nanomedicine and herbal medicine approaches for the treatment of atherosclerosis. Several studies have demonstrated that treatment has a major impact on the management of atherosclerosis and other related cardiovascular issues. Furthermore, this study concluded how the nanoparticle with macrophage target could be delivered for the treatment of a wide range of atherosclerotic disorders. A more precise solution and cure for inflammation and control of atherosclerotic plaque could be obtained by the suppression of pro-atherogenic macrophage with the nanoparticle. Hence, we suggested the use of Nanomedicine therapeutic approaches for the cure and treatment of atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular problems could be a significant solution, although more clinical trials are needed on the Nanomedicine approaches in CVD.

Read more : Diversity of Gobies(Actinopterygii, Gobiiformes) in the Rupnarayan River, West Bengal, India |InformativeBD

 Introduction

Cardiovascular disorders are the major cause of mortality worldwide. Myocardial infection can lead to atherosclerosis and is the major cause of atherosclerosis (Li et al., 2020). Recent studies showed that about 12 million deaths worldwide are occurring due to atherosclerosis and the percentage will rise at the end of 2030, the major causes investigated are myocardial infection, and coronary disorders (Vogel et al., 2021). The early treatment of cardiac ischemia can be significant in stopping atherosclerosis, cell damage, necrosis, and other cardiac infections (Li et al., 2020). Studies at the molecular and cellular level suggested that atherosclerosis and other cardiac problems lead to heart failure (Fig. 1) (Zhao et al., 2023). The disorder in endothelium tissue in large and average size particles can cause the formation of atherosclerotic plaque in lesion-prone regions. The major risk factors for plaque formation are alcohol, smoking, hypertension, obesity, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes (Stangret et al., 2023). Endothelium disorders are a pathophysiological factor enhancing the deposition of fats, expression of adhesions molecules, and chemotactic molecules which are deposited and buildup in arteries (Stangret et al., 2023). Successively differentiation of monocytes into macrophages, which further form foam cells by phagocytosis apolipoprotein B consists of low-density lipoproteins (Deng et al., 2023). In the vessel wall, the immune cells and lipoprotein constitute the principal stage of atherosclerosis development. Together lipoprotein and immune cells either help in inflammation or result in the evolution of plaque, cell death and neovascularization over a long period or maybe long decades (Lampsas et al., 2023). The major issue related to atherosclerosis is the deposition of fats in arteries which leads to blood clots. The CVDs terms are collectively used for the problem and issues in the heart and blood vessels which can damage organs like the kidney, brain, heart and eyes (Zakir et al., 2023; Hamada, 2023; Asiwe and Oritsemuelebi, 2023).

The recent research conducted on CVD and a report from WHO shows that CVD is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. The death ratio around the globe with CVD is calculated at about 18 million people per year. Heart attack and stroke score higher in patients with CVD and one third of these deaths were observed before the age of 70 (Holt et al., 2023). The current treatment available for the cure of CVD is mostly surgery, traditional medicine, diet plan and physical activity, although medication and surgery become a burden on patients (Perone et al., 2023; Tanveer et al., 2023; Fallows, 2023). Furthermore, the current treatments have reduced the mortality rate but they have some limitations. Prolonged treatment like using medication when the symptoms are more chronic due to inflammation and damage of tissue for a long time can affect the liver and other problems (Li et al., 2023; Thu et al., 2023; Farid et al., 2023). Additionally, these medications inherent some limitations like poor water solubility, drug resistance and poor biological pathways (De Rubis et al., 2023; Tiwari et al., 2023; Veerapandian et al., 2023). Moreover, patients with chronic cardio problems need some surgical procedure, although surgical techniques may cause inflammation, a long time for recovery and other factors which are huge burdens. Hence the advancements in surgical procedures have significantly decreased the mortality and increased chances of recovery and treatment but still, the cost is a burden on patients. Hence novel therapeutic techniques like Nanomedicine could reduce the risk of surgery and the burden on patients.

Reference

Abo-Neima SE, El-Sheekh MM, Al-Zaban MI, El-Sayed AI. 2023. Antibacterial and anti-corona virus (229E) activity of Nigella sativa oil combined with photodynamic therapy based on methylene blue in wound infection: in vitro and in vivo study. BMC Microbiology 23(1), 274.

Akbas E, Unal F, Yuzbasioglu D. 2023. Cellular toxicities of gadolinium‐based contrast agents used in magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Applied Toxicology 43(7), 958-972.

Alalaiwe A, Fang JY, Lee HJ, Chiu CH, Hsu CY. 2021. The Demethoxy derivatives of curcumin exhibit greater differentiation suppression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes than curcumin: A mechanistic study of adipogenesis and molecular docking. Biomolecules 11(7), 1025.

Alam SR, Shah AS, Richards J, Lang NN, Barnes G, Joshi N, MacGillivray T, McKillop G, Mirsadraee S, Payne J. 2012. Ultrasmall Superparamagnetic Particles of Iron Oxide in Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 5, 559-565. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.112.974907.

Alamri MA, ul Qamar MT. 2023. Network pharmacology based virtual screening of Flavonoids from Dodonea angustifolia and the molecular mechanism against inflammation. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal 31(11), 101802.

Altyar AE, El-Sayed A, Abdeen A, Piscopo M, Mousa SA, Najda A, Abdel-Daim MM. 2023. Future regenerative medicine developments and their therapeutic applications. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 158, 114131.

Amirullah NA, Abdullah E, Abidin NZ, Abdullah N, Manickam S. 2023. Influence of extraction technologies on the therapeutic properties of Pleurotus spp. (oyster mushrooms)–A critical review. Food Bioscience, 103352.

Amrani S, Harnafi H, Bouanani Nel H, Aziz M, Caid HS, Manfredini S, Besco E, Napolitano M, Bravo E. 2006. Hypolipidaemic activity of aqueous Ocimum basilicum extract in acute hyperlipidaemia induced by triton WR-1339 in rats and its antioxidant property. Phytotherapy Research 20, 1040-1045. DOI: 10.1002/ptr.1961.

Ansari MA, Chauhan W, Shoaib S, Alyahya SA, Ali M, Ashraf H, Alomary MN, Al-Suhaimi EA. 2023. Emerging therapeutic options in the management of diabetes: recent trends, challenges and future directions. International Journal of Obesity 47(12), 1179-1199.

Arshad I, Kanwal A, Zafar I, Unar A, Hanane M, Razia IT, Arif S, Ahsan M, Kamal MA, Rashid S, Khan KA. 2023. Multifunctional role of nanoparticles for the diagnosis and therapeutics of cardiovascular diseases. Environmental Research, 117795.

Ashrafizadeh M, Ahmadi Z, Mohammadinejad R, Farkhondeh T, Samarghandian S. 2020. Curcumin activates the Nrf2 pathway and induces cellular protection against oxidative injury. Current Molecular Medicine 20(2), 116-133.

Asiwe JN, Oritsemuelebi B. 2023. Environmental toxicant-mediated cardiovascular diseases: an insight into the mechanism and possible preventive strategy. Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences, 1-19.

Bao Y, Wang L, Xu Y, Yang Y, Wang L, Si S, Cho S, Hong B. 2012. Salvianolic acid B inhibits macrophage uptake of modified low density lipoprotein (mLDL) in a scavenger receptor CD36-dependent manner. Atherosclerosis 223, 152-159. DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.05.006.

Baruah C, Deka B, Mahanta S, Sharma DK. 2024. Graphene-Based Nanomaterials as Molecular Disease Theragnostic Applications. In Graphene-Based Nanomaterials, 219-232. CRC Press.

Basatemur GL, Jørgensen HF, Clarke MC, Bennett MR, Mallat Z. 2019. Vascular smooth muscle cells in atherosclerosis. Nature Reviews Cardiology 16(12), 727-744.

Beldman TJ, Malinova TS, Desclos E, Grootemaat AE, Misiak AL, Van Der Velden S, Van Roomen CP, Beckers L, Van Veen HA, Krawczyk PM, Hoebe RA. 2019. Nanoparticle-aided characterization of arterial endothelial architecture during atherosclerosis progression and metabolic therapy. ACS Nano 13(12), 13759-13774.

Chehelgerdi M, Chehelgerdi M, Allela OQ, Pecho RDC, Jayasankar N, Rao DP, Thamaraikani T, Vasanthan M, Viktor P, Lakshmaiya N, Saadh MJ. 2023. Progressing nanotechnology to improve targeted cancer treatment: overcoming hurdles in its clinical implementation. Molecular Cancer 22(1), 169.

Chen J, Xiang X, Nie L, Guo X, Zhang F, Wen C, Xia Y, Mao L. 2023. The emerging role of Th1 cells in atherosclerosis and its implications for therapy. Frontiers in Immunology 13, 1079668.

Chen J, Zhang X, Millican R, Sherwood J, Martin S, Jo H, Yoon YS, Brott BC, Jun HW. 2021. Recent advances in nanomaterials for therapy and diagnosis for atherosclerosis. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 170, 142-199.

Chen W, Zhang C, Peng S, Lin Y, Ye Z. 2023. Hydrogels in dental medicine. Advanced Therapeutics, 2300128.

Chen Y, Chen C, Zhang X, He C, Zhao P, Li M, Fan T, Yan R, Lu Y, Lee RJ, Khan MW. 2020. Platinum complexes of curcumin delivered by dual-responsive polymeric nanoparticles improve chemotherapeutic efficacy based on the enhanced anti-metastasis activity and reduce side effects. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B 10(6), 1106-1121.

Chen Y, Zeng Y, Zhu X, Miao L, Liang X, Duan J, Li H, Tian X, Pang L, Wei Y, Yang J. 2021. Significant difference between sirolimus and paclitaxel nanoparticles in anti-proliferation effect in normoxia and hypoxia: the basis of better selection of atherosclerosis treatment. Bioactive Materials 6(3), 880-889.

Cheng W, Shu M, Kuang L, Bai X, Jia X, Zhao Y, Lu Y, Zhu L, Wang L, Zhu Y, Shu Y. 2023. Scavenger receptor A mediates glycated LDL transcytosis across endothelial cells to promote atherosclerosis. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 235, 123836.

Choi DH, Lee YJ, Kim JS, Kang DG, Lee HS. 2012. Cynanchum wilfordii ameliorates hypertension and endothelial dysfunction in rats fed with high fat/cholesterol diets. Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology 34, 4-11. DOI: 10.3109/08923973.2011.569889.

Cox FF, Misiou A, Vierkant A, Ale-Agha N, Grandoch M, Haendeler J, Altschmied J. 2022. Protective effects of curcumin in cardiovascular diseases-Impact on oxidative stress and mitochondria. Cells 11(3), 342.

De Oliveira GV, Alvares TS. 2022. Effect of curcumin on endothelial function in humans and their proposed physiological mechanism: Insights in formulating curcumin products supplementation. Pharma Nutrition, 100313.

De Rubis G, Paudel KR, Corrie L, Mehndiratta S, Patel VK, Kumbhar PS, Manjappa AS, Disouza J, Patravale V, Gupta G, Manandhar B. 2023. Applications and advancements of nanoparticle-based drug delivery in alleviating lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology, 1-41.

Deng L, Kersten S, Stienstra R. 2023. Triacylglycerol uptake and handling by macrophages: From fatty acids to lipoproteins. Progress in Lipid Research, 101250.

Di Fusco SA, Arca M, Scicchitano P, Alonzo A, Perone F, Gulizia MM, Gabrielli D, Oliva F, Imperoli G, Colivicchi F. 2023. Lipoprotein (a): a risk factor for atherosclerosis and an emerging therapeutic target. Heart 109(1), 18-25.

Dinan L, Dioh W, Veillet S, Lafont R. 2021. 20-Hydroxyecdysone, from plant extracts to clinical use: Therapeutic potential for the treatment of neuromuscular, cardio-metabolic and respiratory diseases. Biomedicines 9(5), 492.

Dorobanțu M, Halațiu VB, Gheorghe-Fronea O, Bala CG, Moldovan H, Irinel-Parepa R, Rodean IP, Benedek I, Benedek T. 2023. The Association between Apolipoprotein B, Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Subclinical Atherosclerosis-Findings from the SEPHAR National Registry on Hypertension in Romania. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24(3), 2813.

Du S, Zhou N, Zheng W, Zhu X, Ling R, Zhou W, Li X. 2024. Prepuberty is a window period for curcumin to prevent obesity in postnatal overfed rats. Pediatric Research, 1-11.

Elbouny H, Ouahzizi B, Bekkouch O, Bennani A, Amrani S, Ramchoun M, Sellam K, Alem C. 2023. Thymus atlanticus Supplementation Attenuates Hepatic Steatosis in High-Fat Diet Fed Guinea Pigs. Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants, 1-13.

Eskandar K. 2023. Revolutionizing biotechnology and bioengineering: unleashing the power of innovation. Journal of Applied Biotechnology and Bioengineering 10(3), 81-88.

Fallows ES. 2023. Lifestyle medicine: a cultural shift in medicine that can drive integration of care. Future Healthcare Journal 10(3), 226-231.

Famta P, Shah S, Vambhurkar G, Srinivasarao DA, Jain N, Begum N, Sharma A, Shahrukh S, Kumar KC, Bagasariya D, Khatri DK. 2023. Quality by design endorsed fabrication of Ibrutinib-loaded human serum albumin nanoparticles for the management of leukemia. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 190, 94-106.

Farid A, Michael V, Safwat G. 2023. Melatonin loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)(PLGA) nanoparticles reduce inflammation, inhibit apoptosis and protect rat’s liver from the hazardous effects of CCL4. Scientific Reports 13(1), 16424.

Farooq M, Scalia G, Umana GE, Parekh UA, Naeem F, Abid SF, Khan MH, Zahra SG, Sarkar HP, Chaurasia B. 2023. A Systematic Review of Nanomedicine in Glioblastoma Treatment: Clinical Efficacy, Safety, and Future Directions. Brain Sciences 13(12), 1727.

Fitzgerald K, White S, Borodovsky A, Bettencourt BR, Strahs A, Clausen V, Wijngaard P, Horton JD, Taubel J, Brooks A, Fernando C. 2017. A highly durable RNAi therapeutic inhibitor of PCSK9. New England Journal of Medicine 376(1), 41-51.

Florek K, Bartoszewska E, Biegała S, Klimek O, Malcharczyk B, Kübler P. 2023. Rotational Atherectomy, Orbital Atherectomy, and Intravascular Lithotripsy Comparison for Calcified Coronary Lesions. Journal of Clinical Medicine 12(23), 7246.

Gerasimova EV, Popkova TV, Gerasimova DA, Markina YV, Kirichenko TV. 2023. Subclinical Carotid Atherosclerosis in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis at Low Cardiovascular Risk. Biomedicines 11(3), 974.

Gong P, Long H, Guo Y, Wang Z, Yao W, Wang J, Yang W, Li N, Xie J, Chen F. 2023. Chinese herbal medicines: the modulator of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease targeting oxidative stress. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 116927.

Guo L, Dong Z, Zhang X, Yang Y, Hu X, Ji Y, Li C, Wan S, Xu J, Liu C, Zhang Y. 2023. Morusinol extracted from Morus alba induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis via inhibition of DNA damage response in melanoma by CHK1 degradation through the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Phytomedicine 114, 154765.

Guo Y, Dong X, Zhang R, Zhong Y, Yang P, Zhang S. 2020. Salvia miltiorrhiza improves Alzheimer’s disease: A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine 99(36).

Haleem A, Javaid M, Singh RP, Rab S, Suman R. 2023. Applications of Nanotechnology in Medical field. Global Health Journal.

Hamada N. 2023. Noncancer effects of ionizing radiation exposure on the eye, the circulatory system and beyond: developments made since the 2011 ICRP statement on tissue reactions. Radiation Research 200(2), 188-216.

Hazra P, Istiak ASME, Koly KN, Akter F, Ferdous MF, Das SR, Hasan MI, Haque A, Hayat S, Sultana N, Rafiq K. 2023. Comparative Efficacy of Combined Formulation of Andrographis paniculata, Lagerstroemia speciosa and Tribulus terrestris with Glimepiride on Renal and Pancreatic Injury in Alloxan Induced Type-1 Diabetic Mice. European Journal of Veterinary Medicine 3(3), 14-20.

He CP, Quan WJ, Zeng YL, Zhou HY, You PD, Li ZX, Li YM, Lin LM, Liu B, Liao DF, Tuo QH. 2023. Construction of nicotinic acid curcumin nanoparticles and its Anti-atherosclerosis effect via PCSK9/LDL-R, ABCA1/Caveolin-1/LXR pathway. Materials & Design 229, 111931.

He J, Zhang W, Zhou X, Xu F, Zou J, Zhang Q, Zhao Y, He H, Yang H, Liu J. 2023. Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive size-reducible nanoassemblies for deeper atherosclerotic plaque penetration and enhanced macrophage-targeted drug delivery. Bioactive Materials 19, 115-126.

Holt A, Batinica B, Liang J, Kerr A, Crengle S, Hudson B, Wells S, Harwood M, Selak V, Mehta S, Grey C. 2023. Development and validation of cardiovascular risk prediction equations in 76,000 people with known cardiovascular disease. European Journal of Preventive Cardiology, zwad314.

Hou Y, Bai L, Wang X, Zhang S, Liu S, Hu J, Gao J, Guo S, Ho CT, Bai N. 2023. Gut Microbiota Combined with Serum Metabolomics to Investigate the Hypoglycemic Effect of Actinidia arguta Leaves. Nutrients 15(19), 4115.

Hu CM, Fang RH, Wang KC, Luk BT, Thamphiwatana S, Dehaini D, Nguyen P, Angsantikul P, Wen CH, Kroll AV, Carpenter C, Ramesh M, Qu V, Patel SH, Zhu J, Shi W, Hofman FM, Chen TC, Gao W, Zhang L. 2015. Nanoparticle biointerfacing by platelet membrane cloaking. Nature 526(7571), 118-121. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15373.

Hu W, Wang C, Gao D, Liang Q. 2023. Toxicity of transition metal nanoparticles: A review of different experimental models in the gastrointestinal tract. Journal of Applied Toxicology 43(1), 32-46.

Ibrahim AY, Hendawy SF, Elsayed AA, Omer EA. 2016. Evaluation of hypolipidemic Marrubium vulgare effect in triton WR-1339-induced hyperlipidemia mice. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine 9, 453-459. DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.03.038.

Ji X, Ma Q, Wang X, Ming H, Bao G, Fu M, Wei C. 2023. Digeda-4 decoction and its disassembled prescriptions improve dyslipidemia and apoptosis by regulating AMPK/SIRT1 pathway on tyloxapol-induced nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 116827.

Jing H, Wu X, Xiang M, Wang C, Novakovic VA, Shi J. 2023. Microparticle Phosphatidylserine Mediates Coagulation: Involvement in Tumor Progression and Metastasis. Cancers 15(7), 1957.

Jung H, Lee D, You H, Lee M, Kim H, Cheong E, Um JW. 2023. LPS induces microglial activation and GABAergic synaptic deficits in the hippocampus accompanied by prolonged cognitive impairment. Scientific Reports 13(1), 6547.

Kanmaz H, Gokce Y, Hayaloglu AA. 2023. Volatiles, phenolic compounds and bioactive properties of essential oil and aqueous extract of purple basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and antidiabetic activity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic Wistar rats. Food Chemistry Advances 3, 100429.

Karve S, Werner ME, Sukumar R, Cummings ND, Copp JA, Wang EC, Li C, Sethi M, Chen RC, Pacold ME, et al. 2012. Revival of the abandoned therapeutic wortmannin by nanoparticle drug delivery. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109, 8230-8235. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1120508109.

Khan J, Yadav S, Alam MA. 2023. Recent Developments in Nanomaterial Drug Delivery and Upgrading Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease. Current Pharmaceutical Design.

Kharlamov AN, Tyurnina AE, Veselova VS, Kovtun OP, Shur VY, Gabinsky JL. 2015. Silica-gold nanoparticles for atheroprotective management of plaques: Results of the NANOM-FIM trial. Nanoscale 7, 8003-8015. DOI: 10.1039/C5NR01050K.

Khoshandam A, Hedayatian A, Mollazadeh A, Razavi BM, Hosseinzadeh H. 2023. Propolis and its constituents against cardiovascular risk factors including obesity, hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and dyslipidemia: A comprehensive review. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences 26(8), 853.

Kim HY, Jeong HJ. 2023. A new formula CPC22 regulates bone loss, hot flashes, and dysregulated lipid metabolism in ovariectomized postmenopausal mice. CELLMED 13(14), 2-2.

Koboziev I, Scoggin S, Gong X, Mirzaei P, Zabet-Moghaddam M, Yosofvand M, Moussa H, Jones-Hall Y, Moustaid-Moussa N. 2020. Effects of curcumin in a mouse model of very high fat diet-induced obesity. Biomolecules 10(10), 1368.

Krolikoski M, Monslow J, Puré E. 2019. The CD44-HA axis and inflammation in atherosclerosis: A temporal perspective. Matrix Biology 78, 201-218.

Lampsas S, Xenou M, Oikonomou E, Pantelidis P, Lysandrou A, Sarantos S, Goliopoulou A, Kalogeras K, Tsigkou V, Kalpis A, Paschou SA. 2023. Lipoprotein (a) in Atherosclerotic Diseases: From Pathophysiology to Diagnosis and Treatment. Molecules 28(3), 969.

Li J, Wang B, Wang Y, Wu F, Li P, Li Y, Zhao L, Cui W, Ding Y, An Q. 013. Therapeutic effect of liposomal prostaglandin E(1) in acute lower limb ischemia as an adjuvant to hybrid procedures. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 5, 1760-1764. DOI: 10.3892/etm.2013.1061.

Li B, Xia Y, Hu B. 2020. Infection and atherosclerosis: TLR-dependent pathways. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 77(14), 2751-2769.

Li G, Cheng J, Yang L, Chen P, Duan X. 2024. Ethanol extract of Rubia yunnanensis inhibits carotid atherosclerosis via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Biomedical Reports 20(2), 1-12.

Li J, Dong Z, Wu H, Liu Y, Chen Y, Li S, Zhang Y, Qi X, Wei L. 2023. The triglyceride-glucose index is associated with atherosclerosis in patients with symptomatic coronary artery disease, regardless of diabetes mellitus and hyperlipidaemia. Cardiovascular Diabetology 22(1), 224.

Li J, Zhou Y, Ma J, Zhang Q, Shao J, Liang S, Yu Y, Li W, Wang C. 2023. The long-term health outcomes, pathophysiological mechanisms and multidisciplinary management of long COVID. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy 8(1), 416.

Li KX, Wang ZC, Machuki JOA, Li MZ, Wu YJ, Niu MK, Yu KY, Lu QB, Sun HJ. 2022. Benefits of curcumin in the vasculature: A therapeutic candidate for vascular remodeling in arterial hypertension and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Frontiers in Physiology 13, 530.

Li M, Jiang S, Haller A, Wirsching S, Fichter M, Simon J, Wagner M, Mailänder V, Gehring S, Crespy D, Landfester K. 2021. Encapsulation of polyprodrugs enables an efficient and controlled release of dexamethasone. Nanoscale Horizons 6(10), 791-800.

Li X, Gao Y, Li H, Majoral JP, Shi X, Pich A. 2023. Smart and bioinspired systems for overcoming biological barriers and enhancing disease theranostics. Progress in Materials Science, 101170.

Lin CH, Chen CH, Lin ZC, Fang JY. 2017. Recent advances in oral delivery of drugs and bioactive natural products using solid lipid nanoparticles as the carriers. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis 25(2), 219-234.

Liu P, Li W, Hu Z, Qin X, Liu G. 2020. Isolation, purification, identification, and stability of anthocyanins from Lycium ruthenicum Murr. LWT 126, 109334.

Liu QR, Zhao LN, Wang YS, Han YG, Zhang ZL, Wu YQ. 2020. Research progress on processing and processing methods in Salvia miltiorrhiza production areas. World Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 6(4), 423-431.

Long Y, Li D, Yu S, Zhang YL, Liu SY, Wan JY, Shi A, Deng J, Wen J, Li XQ, Ma Y. 2022. Natural essential oils: A promising strategy for treating cardio-cerebrovascular diseases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 115421.

Ma M, Luan X, Zheng H, Wang X, Wang S, Shen T, Ren D. 2023. A Mulberry Diels-Alder-Type Adduct, Kuwanon M, Triggers Apoptosis and Paraptosis of Lung Cancer Cells through Inducing Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24(2), 1015.

Margolis J, McDonald J, Heuser R, Klinke P, Waksman R, Virmani R, Desai N, Hilton D. 2007. Systemic nanoparticle paclitaxel (nab-paclitaxel) for in-stent restenosis I (SNAPIST-I): A first-in-human safety and dose-finding study. Clinical Cardiology 30, 165-170. DOI: 10.1002/clc.20066.

Mauersberger C, Hinterdobler J, Schunkert H, Kessler T, Sager HB. 2022. Where the Action Is—Leukocyte Recruitment in Atherosclerosis. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine 8, 2091.

Meneghini BC, Tavares ER, Guido MC, Tavoni TM, Stefani HA, Kalil-Filho R, Maranhão RC. 2019. Lipid core nanoparticles as vehicle for docetaxel reduces atherosclerotic lesion, inflammation, cell death and proliferation in an atherosclerosis rabbit model. Vascular Pharmacology 115, 46-54.

Min K, Sahu A, Jeon SH, Tae G. 2023. Emerging drug delivery systems with traditional routes–A roadmap to chronic inflammatory diseases. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 203, 115119.

Mohamed HEA, Khalil AT, Hkiri K, Ayaz M, Abbasi JA, Sadiq A, Ullah F, Khan MA, Maaza M. 2023. Phytosynthesized europium oxide nanoparticles for potential antidiabetic application. Inorganic Chemistry Communications 157, 111241.

Munjal A, Khandia R. 2020. Atherosclerosis: orchestrating cells and biomolecules involved in its activation and inhibition. Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology 120, 85-122.

Nader MA, el-Agamy DS, Suddek GM. 2010. Protective effects of propolis and thymoquinone on development of atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits. Archives of Pharmacal Research 33, 637-643. DOI: 10.1007/s12272-010-0420-1.

Najberg M, Mansor MH, Taillé T, Bouré C, Molina-Peña R, Boury F, Cenis JL, Garcion E, Alvarez-Lorenzo C. 2020. Aerogel sponges of silk fibroin, hyaluronic acid and heparin for soft tissue engineering: Composition-properties relationship. Carbohydrate Polymers 237, 116107.

Nazir F, Munawar K. 2024. Emerging fabrication strategies of hydrogel and its use as a drug delivery vehicle. Hydrogels: Antimicrobial Characteristics, Tissue Engineering, Drug Delivery Vehicle, 79.

Nikitina EV, Yurtaeva TA, Tsyganov MS, Ezhkova GO. 2021. Physico-chemical and antioxidant properties of skimmed varenets (Slavic baked milk yogurt) mixed with enzyme-modified potato starches. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal 9(1), 88-99.

Nosrati H, Nosrati M. 2023. Atificial intelligence in regenerative medicine: applications and implications. Biomimetics 8(5), 442.

Oppedisano F, Macrì R, Gliozzi M, Musolino V, Carresi C, Maiuolo J, Bosco F, Nucera S, Caterina Zito M, Guarnieri L, Scarano F. 2020. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of n-3 PUFAs: Their role in cardiovascular protection. Biomedicines 8(9), 306.

Orgah JO, He S, Wang Y, Jiang M, Wang Y, Orgah EA, Duan Y, Zhao B, Zhang B, Han J, Zhu Y. 2020. Pharmacological potential of the combination of Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen) and Carthamus tinctorius (Honghua) for diabetes mellitus and its cardiovascular complications. Pharmacological Research 153, 104654.

Palanivelu P, Jagadesan V, Vijayaraghavan R, Parthiban P, Swaminathan M, Sivanesan S. 2023. Terminalia arjuna Bark Extract Reduces High Fat Diet Induced Cardiac Damage in Wistar Rats by Altering Biochemical and Histological Parameters. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education & Research 57(1).

Paramera EI, Karathanos VT, Konteles SJ. 2023. Yeast cells and yeast-based materials for microencapsulation. In Microencapsulation in the Food Industry (pp. 343-365). Academic Press.

Pardeshi SR, Nikam A, Chandak P, Mandale V, Naik JB, Giram PS. 2023. Recent advances in PLGA based nanocarriers for drug delivery system: a state of the art review. International Journal of Polymeric Materials and Polymeric Biomaterials 72(1), 49-78.

Peña-Jorquera H, Cid-Jofré V, Landaeta-Díaz L, Petermann-Rocha F, Martorell M, Zbinden-Foncea H, Ferrari G, Jorquera-Aguilera C, Cristi-Montero C. 2023. Plant-based nutrition: Exploring health benefits for atherosclerosis, chronic diseases, and metabolic syndrome- A comprehensive review. Nutrients 15(14), 3244.

Perera B, Wu Y, Nguyen NT, Ta HT. 2023. Advances in drug delivery to atherosclerosis: Investigating the efficiency of different nanomaterials employed for different type of drugs. Materials Today Bio, 100767.

Perone F, Pingitore A, Conte E, Halasz G, Ambrosetti M, Peruzzi M, Cavarretta E. 2023, March. Obesity and Cardiovascular Risk: Systematic Intervention Is the Key for Prevention. In Healthcare 11(6), 902.

Ren BC, Zhang YF, Liu SS, Cheng XJ, Yang X, Cui XG, Zhao XR, Zhao H, Hao MF, Li MD, Tie YY. 2020. Curcumin alleviates oxidative stress and inhibits apoptosis in diabetic cardiomyopathy via Sirt1‐Foxo1 and PI3K‐Akt signalling pathways. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine 24(21), 12355-12367.

Roeters van Lennep JE, Tokgözoğlu LS, Badimon L, Dumanski SM, Gulati M, Hess CN, Holven KB, Kavousi M, Kayıkçıoğlu M, Lutgens E, Michos ED. 2023. Women, lipids, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a call to action from the European Atherosclerosis Society. European Heart Journal 44(39), 4157-4173.

Saeed S, Khan SU, Gul R. 2023. Nanoparticle: A promising player in nanomedicine and its theranostic applications for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Current Problems in Cardiology, 101599.

Salarizadeh N, Shojai S, Pebdeni AB, Nojoki F, Zargar SJ, Rezaei MH. 2023. Classical and new candidate biomarkers for developing biosensors in diagnosing diabetes and prediabetes; past, present and future. In Advanced Sensor Technology (pp. 337-381). Elsevier.

Samuel P, Sundarraj S, Sudarmani DNP. 2023. Nanotechnology-Based Stem Cell Therapy: Current Status and Perspectives.

Setia A, Mehata AK, Priya V, Pawde DM, Jain D, Mahto SK, Muthu MS. 2023. Current Advances in Nanotheranostics for Molecular Imaging and Therapy of Cardiovascular Disorders. Molecular Pharmaceutics 20(10), 4922-4941.

Shariati L, Esmaeili Y, Rahimmanesh I, Babolmorad S, Ziaei G, Hasan A, Boshtam M, Makvandi P. 2023. Nanobased platform advances in cardiovascular diseases: Early diagnosis, imaging, treatment, and tissue engineering. Environmental Research, 116933.

Shen L, Chen W, Ding J, Shu G, Chen M, Zhao Z, Xia S, Ji J. 2023. The role of metabolic reprogramming of oxygen‐induced macrophages in the dynamic changes of atherosclerotic plaques. The FASEB Journal 37(3), e22791.

Shoaib A, Darraj A, Khan ME, Azmi L, Alalwan A, Alamri O, Tabish M, Khan AU. 2023. A Nanotechnology-Based Approach to Biosensor Application in Current Diabetes Management Practices. Nanomaterials 13(5), 867.

Shree D, Patra CN, Sahoo BM. 2024. A Review on Nanotechnology Mediated-Herbal Drug Delivery for the Treatment of Obesity. The Natural Products Journal 14(1), 18-34.

Sobańska Z, Sitarek K, Gromadzińska J, Świercz R, Szparaga M, Domeradzka‐Gajda K, Kowalczyk K, Zapór L, Wąsowicz W, Grobelny J, Ranoszek‐Soliwoda K. 2023. Biological effects of molybdenum (IV) sulfide nanoparticles and microparticles in the rat after repeated intratracheal administration. Journal of Applied Toxicology.

Srivastav AK, Karpathak S, Rai MK, Kumar D, Misra DP, Agarwal V. 2023. Lipid based drug delivery systems for oral, transdermal and parenteral delivery: Recent strategies for targeted delivery consistent with different clinical application. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology, 104526.

Stangret A, Dykacz W, Jabłoński K, Wesołowska A, Klimczak-Tomaniak D, Kochman J, Tomaniak M. 2023. The cytokine trio-visfatin, placental growth factor and fractalkine-and their role in myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries (MINOCA). Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews.

Subramaniam S, Subramaniam R, Rajapandian S, Uthrapathi S, Gnanamanickam VR, Dubey GP. Anti-atherogenic activity of ethanolic fraction of Terminalia arjuna bark on hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2011;2011:487916.

Tanveer Y, Sanipini S, Khleif R, Tsenteradze T, Gapizov A, Grezenko H, Affaf M, Abdelaziz AM, Rehman A, Zia U, Jama H. 2023. Transforming Medical Paradigms: A Cutting-Edge Review of Genomic and Robotic Medical and Surgical Approaches in the Battle Against Diabetes, Hypertension, and Cardiovascular Issues. Cureus 15(10).

Tao W, Yurdagul A Jr, Kong N, Li W, Wang X, Doran AC, Feng C, Wang J, Islam MA, Farokhzad OC, Tabas I. 2020. siRNA nanoparticles targeting CaMKIIγ in lesional macrophages improve atherosclerotic plaque stability in mice. Sci Transl Med 12(553), eaay1063. DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aay1063.

Thapa R, Ali H, Afzal O, Bhat AA, Almalki WH, Alzarea SI, Kazmi I, Altamimi ASA, Jain N, Pandey M, Fuloria NK. 2023. Unlocking the potential of mesoporous silica nanoparticles in breast cancer treatment. Journal of Nanoparticle Research 25(8), 169.

Thu HE, Haider MA, Khan S, Sohail M, Hussain Z. 2023. Nanotoxicity Induced by Nanomaterials: A Review of Factors Affecting Nanotoxicity and Possible Adaptations. OpenNano, 100190.

Tiwari P, Yadav K, Shukla RP, Gautam S, Marwaha D, Sharma M, Mishra PR. 2023. Surface modification strategies in translocating nano-vesicles across different barriers and the role of bio-vesicles in improving anticancer therapy. Journal of Controlled Release 363, 290-348.

Tuncer MA, Yaymaci B, Sati L, Cayli S, Acar G, Altug T, Demir R. 2009. Influence of Tribulus terrestris extract on lipid profile and endothelial structure in developing atherosclerotic lesions in the aorta of rabbits on a high-cholesterol diet. Acta Histochem 111, 488-500. DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2008.06.004.

Van der Valk FM, van Wijk DF, Lobatto ME, Verberne HJ, Storm G, Willems MCM, Legemate DA, Nederveen AJ, Calcagno C, Mani V, et al. 2015. Prednisolone-containing liposomes accumulate in human atherosclerotic macrophages upon intravenous administration. Nanomed Nanotechnol Biol Med 11, 1039-1046. DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2015.02.021.

Veerapandian M, Ramasundaram S, Jerome P, Chellasamy G, Govindaraju S, Yun K, Oh TH. 2023. Drug delivery application of functional nanomaterials synthesized using natural sources. Journal of Functional Biomaterials 14(8), 426.

Veiga N, Goldsmith M, Diesendruck Y, Ramishetti S, Rosenblum D, Elinav E, Behlke MA, Benhar I, Peer D. 2019. Leukocyte-specific siRNA delivery revealing IRF8 as a potential anti-inflammatory target. Journal of Controlled Release 313, 33-41.

Vijayalakshmi GSKD, Puvvada N. 2023. Recent Advances in Chemically Engineered Nanostructures Impact on Ischemic Stroke Treatment. ACS Omega 8(48), 45188.

Vogel B, Acevedo M, Appelman Y, Merz CNB, Chieffo A, Figtree GA, Guerrero M, Kunadian V, Lam CS, Maas AH, Mihailidou AS. 2021. The Lancet women and cardiovascular disease Commission: reducing the global burden by 2030. The Lancet 397(10292), 2385-2438.

Wang C, Liu X, Zhao R, Yang M, Liu W, Dai Q, Bao X, Chen Y, Ma J. 2023. The Amorphous Solid Dispersion of Chrysin in Plasdone® S630 Demonstrates Improved Oral Bioavailability and Antihyperlipidemic Performance in Rats. Pharmaceutics 15(10), 2378.

Wang W, Li H, Shi Y, Zhou J, Khan GJ, Zhu J, Liu F, Duan H, Li L, Zhai K. 2024. Targeted intervention of natural medicinal active ingredients and traditional Chinese medicine on epigenetic modification: Possible strategies for prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis. Phytomedicine 122, 155139.

Wang X, Luan F, Yue H, Song C, Wang S, Feng J, Zhang X, Yang W, Li Y, Wei W, Tao Y. 2023. Recent advances of smart materials for ocular drug delivery. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 115006.

Widjaja G, Kumar A, Chandrasekar V, Shankar BB, Nayak BB. 2023. Artificial Intelligence and the Contributions of Nanotechnology to the Biomedical Sector. Handbook of Research on Advanced Functional Materials for Orthopedic Applications, 65-92.

Wu Q, Pan W, Wu G, Wu F, Guo Y, Zhang X. 2023. CD40-targeting magnetic nanoparticles for MRI/optical dual-modality molecular imaging of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques. Atherosclerosis 369, 17-26.

Wu Y, Xu S, Tian XY. 2020. The effect of salvianolic acid on vascular protection and possible mechanisms. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2020.

Xue H, Hao Z, Gao Y, Cai X, Tang J, Liao X, Tan J. 2023. Research progress on the hypoglycemic activity and mechanisms of natural polysaccharides. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 126199.

Yan Z, Liu Z, Yang B, Zhu X, Song E, Song Y. 2024. Long-term pulmonary iron oxide nanoparticles exposure disrupts hepatic iron-lipid homeostasis and increases plaque vulnerability in ApoE-mice. Environmental Pollution 341, 122905.

Yang F, Shang S, Qi M, Xiang Y, Wang L, Wang X, Lin T, Hao D, Chen J, Liu J, Wu Q. 2023. Yeast glucan particles: An express train for oral targeted drug delivery systems. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 127131.

Yang M, Peng Y, Liu W, Zhou M, Meng Q, Yuan C. 2019. Sirtuin 2 expression suppresses oxidative stress and senescence of nucleus pulposus cells through inhibition of the p53/p21 pathway. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 513(3), 616-622.

Yu H, Zhu T, Xie J, Du J, Sun C, Wang J, Wang J, Chen S. 2019. Preparation of inorganic‐organic‐framework nanoscale carriers as a potential platform for drug delivery. Advanced Engineering Materials 21(2), 1800626.

Yuan F, Dong H, Gong J, Wang D, Hu M, Huang W, Fang K, Qin X, Qiu X, Yang X, Lu F. 2019. A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on the effects of turmeric and curcuminoids on blood lipids in adults with metabolic diseases. Advances in Nutrition 10(5), 791-802.

Yue D, Wang M, Deng F, Yin W, Zhao H, Zhao X, Xu Z. 2018. Biomarker-targeted fluorescent probes for breast cancer imaging. Chinese Chemical Letters 29(5), 648-656.

Yusof HM, Liew YW, Ali A, Zakaria NS. 2023. Supplementation of psyllium husk and selected herb mixture improves cardiovascular disease risk factors in female adults. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 13(11), 161-169.

Zakir M, Ahuja N, Surksha MA, Sachdev R, Kalariya Y, Nasir M, Kashif M, Shahzeen F, Tayyab A, Moazzam Khan MS, Junejo M. 2023. Cardiovascular complications of diabetes: from microvascular to macrovascular pathways. Cureus 15(9).

Zhang Y, Si Y, Yao S, Yang N, Song G, Sang H, Zu D, Xu X, Wang J, Qin S. 2013. Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb. decreases athero-susceptibility in lipoproteins and the aorta of guinea pigs fed high fat diet. Lipids 48, 619-631. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11745-013-3773-7.

Zhang J, Zhang Q, Liu G, Zhang N. 2019. Therapeutic potentials and mechanisms of the Chinese traditional medicine Danshensu. European Journal of Pharmacology 864, 172710.

Zhang X, Centurion F, Misra A, Patel S, Gu Z. 2023. Molecularly targeted nanomedicine enabled by inorganic nanoparticles for atherosclerosis diagnosis and treatment. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews n.d., 114709.

Zhao C, Li S, Zhang J, Huang Y, Zhang L, Zhao F, Du X, Hou J, Zhang T, Shi C, Wang P. 2020. Current state and future perspective of cardiovascular medicines derived from natural products. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 216, 107698.

Zhao H, Tan Z, Zhou J, Wu Y, Hu Q, Ling Q, Ling J, Liu M, Ma J, Zhang D, Wang Y. 2023. The regulation of circRNA and lncRNA-protein binding in cardiovascular diseases: Emerging therapeutic targets. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 165, 115067.

Zhao K, Li B, He D, Zhao C, Shi Z, Dong B, Pan D, Patil RR, Yan Z, Guo Z. 2020. Chemical characteristic and bioactivity of hemicellulose-based polysaccharides isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 165, 2475-2483.

Zhao L, Wang S, Xu X, Guo W, Yang J, Liu Y, Xie S, Piao G, Xu T, Wang Y, Xu Y. 2023. Integrated metabolomics and network pharmacology to reveal the lipid-lowering mechanisms of Qizha Shuangye Granules in hyperlipidemic rats. Journal of the Science of Food and Agricultur.

Zhu BJ, Yan ZY, Hong L, Li SP, Zhao J. 2020. Quality evaluation of Salvia miltiorrhiza from different geographical origins in China based on qualitative and quantitative saccharide mapping and chemometrics. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 191, 113583.

Zhu L, Xu W, Chatterjee E, Li G, Wang X, Xiao J, Chen X, Yang L. 2023. Anti-inflammation Nanomedicine Shots through Atherosclerotic Plaques for Targeted Treatment and Precise Diagnosis. Materials & Design n.d., 112005.

Source: Innovative approaches in atherosclerosis treatment: A comprehensive review of nanomedicine and herbal medicine strategies