Mapping Dindéresso Forest Landscapes with Sentinel-2 and Machine Learning | InformativeBD

Boalidioa Tankoano,  Dramane Ouedraogo,  Zézouma Sanon, Jérôme T. Yameogo, and Mipro Hien, from the different institute of Burkina Faso. wrote a Reseach Article about, Mapping Dindéresso Forest Landscapes with Sentinel-2 and Machine Learning. Entitled, Mapping heterogeneous landscapes using sentinel-2 imagery and machine learning algorithms: A case of the Dindéresso classified forest. This research paper published by the International Journal of Biosciences (IJB). an open access scholarly research journal on Biosciences. under the affiliation of the International Network For Natural Sciences| INNSpub. an open access multidisciplinary research journal publisher.

Abstract

The anthropization of natural ecosystems has not excluded the domain classified by the State. As a result, the landscape of protected areas such as the Dinderesso Classified Forest is highly heterogeneous. The overall objective was to assess the performance of machine learning algorithms in better mapping the land use classes of the Dinderesso Classified Forest. To do this, a Sentinel-2 image and information collected in the field were used. The Sentinel-2 image was classified using Random Forest and Support Vector Machine algorithms. 850 regions of interest were selected for model training and validation. Random Forest performed best, with a Kappa coefficient of 91.49% compared with 90.17% for Support Vector Machine. The F-score for the Bare land and Agroforestry parks class was the highest (0.98) and the Gallery and Dense Vegetation class had the lowest F-score (0.82). Both algorithms showed high levels of performance, so they are suitable for classifying heterogeneous landscapes. The proportion of the Bare land and Agroforestry parks class was 29.29% compared with 70.71% for the natural formation classes (shrub savannahs, tree savannahs, Gallery, and Dense Vegetation). Given the level of anthropization of the Classified Forest, measures need to be taken to limit this process to conserve biodiversity.

Read more : White Spot Syndrome Virus: A Major Threat to Shrimp Farming in Asia | InformativeBD

Introduction

Burkina Faso, a Sahelian country, is home to major reservoirs of biodiversity in West Africa (Ouoba, 2006; Tankaono et al., 2017; Tiendrebeogo et al., 2019). The State's classified domain, which covers around 14% of the national territory, is the foundation of the national biodiversity conservation policy (Tankaono et al., 2016; Zida et al., 2015). However, human activities such as inappropriate agricultural practices, overpopulation, exploitation, and urban sprawl, combined with the poverty of rural populations, constitute serious threats to this classified State domain (Tankoano et al., 2015; Sanon et al., 2019). According to the latest report on Burkina Faso's forests, around 60% of the country's protected areas are under human occupation (DIFOR, 2007). Between 1990 and 2015, the surface area of plant cover was reduced by around 1% per year (FAO, 2015). One of the main causes of this deforestation of protected areas is agriculture and gold panning (Ouedraogo et al., 2010; Dimobe et al., 2015; Soulama et al., 2015; Zoungrana et al., 2015; Semeki Ngabinzeke et al., 2016). These two main activities lead to the fragmentation of the forest ecosystems in these protected areas (Kabulu et al., 2008; Kpedenou et al., 2016; Tankoano et al., 2016; Sanon et al., 2019). Faced with this situation, monitoring the country's last vestiges of biodiversity is becoming crucial, even imperative, at the risk of witnessing an erosion of national biodiversity. Unfortunately, financial and human resources are lacking.

Most studies concerning vegetation cover mapping in Burkina Faso are based on Landsat satellite images, but very few have used Sentinel-2 images. Nowadays, remote sensing has become a powerful tool for monitoring protected areas. Satellite imagery is commonly used to study the dynamics of land-use units, mutations between land-use units, and the impacts of agricultural activities and logging (JofackSokeng et al., 2016; Gansaonré et al., 2020; Tankoano et al., 2023). These various activities within protected areas lead to a certain het erogeneity in the landscape, which makes it difficult to classify land-use units with a high level of precision.

More and more satellites and classification algorithms are being developed for this purpose. Machine learning algorithms are also being used to classify satellite images. Sentinel-2 images, with their high resolution (10m), make it easier to detect the smallest units in the landscape. Machine learning algorithms enable accurate cartographic results, facilitating timely decision-making by protected area managers. 

However, the application of machine learning algorithms in classifying heterogeneous ecosystems has been explored little. Their contribution to improved accuracy, hence the reduction of interclass confusion, therefore needs to be explored in highly heterogeneous savannah ecosystems.

This study aims to evaluate the ability of machine learning algorithms to classify a heterogeneous landscape using a sentinel-2 image with high accuracy. Specifically, the aim was to (i) map the Dinderesso Classified Forest using a Sentinel-2 image and machine learning ; (ii) assess the ability of each two machine learning algorithms (RF and SVM) to better classify the land use/land cover within Dinderesso classified forest.

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Source : Mapping heterogeneous landscapes using sentinel-2 imagery and machine learning algorithms: A case ofthe Dindéresso classified forest 

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White Spot Syndrome Virus: A Major Threat to Shrimp Farming in Asia | InformativeBD

Joyanta Bir,  Pallabi Howlader, Sunuram Ray,  Shamima Sultana,  S. M. Ibrahim Khalil, and Ghausiatur Reza Banu, from the different institute of Bangladesh. wrote a Review Article about, White Spot Syndrome Virus: A Major Threat to Shrimp Farming in Asia. Entitled, A critical review on White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV): A potential threat to shrimp farming in Bangladesh and some Asian countries. This research paper published by the International journal of Microbiology and Mycology(IJMM). an open access scholarly research journal on Microbiology. under the affiliation of the International Network For Natural Sciences| INNSpub. an open access multidisciplinary research journal publisher.

Abstract

WSSV is one of the alarming pathogen all over the world especially for the tropical countries. It causes huge economic loss through rapid mortality of crustacean and some of important mollusks species. Immediately after occurrence in 1992, this disease continuously depletes the world aquaculture production. It is more severe in Asian country and high prevalence in winter sometime after heavy rainfall. Morphologically WSSV consists with a double strand DNA with a 6-7 nm thick envelope, a nucleocaspid and proteins. The nested PCR is the most reliable technique to detect WSSV DNA from shrimp products. Farmer should be given additional concern to prevent the outbreak this virulence virus. Therefore the current study aim is to focus on some biological and economical aspects of WSSV pathogen. This will be an useful reviews article for the aquaculture science.

Read more :  Ossicle Morphology of Sandfish (Holothuria scabra) Across Maturity Stages |InformativeBD 

Introduction

Status of shrimp farming in world Shrimp aquaculture is foremost earning industries in many tropical and subtropical countries of the world especially in Asia and Australia. It has a very significance contribution in national income, food security, employment opportunities to both rural and coastal people and eventually in poverty alleviation. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2014), Shrimp is occupying the largest single commodity in international market and contribute about 15 percent of the total value of traded fishery products in 2012. 

The FAO and GOAL survey estimate that the global production of farm-raised shrimp will reach 3.8 million tonnes in 2012 (Fig. 1) and 4 million tonnes in 2013 (Valderrama et al., 2012). About 50 percent shrimp are captured from the Northwest and Western Central Pacific ocean, Indian Ocean and Western Atlantic Ocean also contribute 20 and 17 percent of the total respectively. In the world of shrimp aquaculture, the most important two species are the Penaeus vannamei and Penaeus monodon, sometime Penaeus indicus also attain important for farming. In Asia most shrimp aquaculture occurs in China, followed by Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, India, and Bangladesh (Fig. 2).

Therefore In Bangladesh, shrimp farming has rapidly expanded since 1980s (Debnath et al., 2014) and now this sector is the second largest export earnings sources contributing about 5% to national GDP (Hossain et al., 2014; Rahman and Hossain, 2013) and approximately 8.5 million Bangladeshi peoples particularly coastal regions peoples directly depend on this sector for their livelihood (DoF, 2013). The main cultured species is black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon), and in 2010-2011 Bangladesh produced 56,569 MT of tiger shrimp with an export value of approximately $462 million (DOF, 2012). 

The major viruses of concern for shrimp aquaculture are white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), yellow head virus (YHV), taura syndrome virus (TSV), infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV), infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV), gill-associated virus (GAV), monodon slow growth virus (MSGS) and monodon baculovirus (MBV) (Walker and Mohan, 2009).

In recent year’s White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) is a major threat to Shrimp Aquaculture in many country especially Asian countries. As a result shrimp production was drastically decreases and many shrimp farmer and hatchery owner had to face huge economic loses. But they have no clear idea about the syndrome of this WSSV virus. So the objective of this review article is to give clear idea about some biological aspect of WSSV virus and the consequence of WSSV virus with some mitigation procedure and economic aspects.

White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) is a pathogen responsible for the white spot diseases (WSD) in cultured penaeid shrimp. WSSV is the only member of the genus Whispovirus, and family, Nimaviridae (Reddy et al., 2013; (Walker and Mohan, 2009). Depending on clinical sign initially WSSV virus was known in different names like Hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis baculovirus (HHNBV), chinese baculovirus (CBV), systemic ectodermal and mesodermal baculovirus (SEMBV), penaeid rodshaped DNA virus (PRDV) or rodshaped nuclear virus of Penaeus japonicus (RV-PJ), and white spot disease (WSD) to the researcher (Reddy et al., 2013)

History of outbreak and world Distribution White spot disease (WSD) was first reported in June 1992 in cultured kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus Bate, 1888) in the Fujian Province of China and in nearby Taiwan (Jiang 2009; Walker and Mohan, 2009). The disease then spread to Japan in 1993 where it was reported from farmed M. japonicus (Walker and Mohan, 2009; Nakano et al., 1994).

Over the next few years the disease became widespread throughout Southeast Asia, spreading to Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and India, causing hundreds of million dollars economic losses for the shrimp industry every year. In Bangladesh, WSSV was first identified in 1994 from a semi-intensive farm in Cox's Bazar, and then subsequently in 1996 the disease spread to Khulna region and other southwest part country, affecting approximately 90% of extensive shrimp farms and causing a 20% drop in national shrimp production. As a result the shrimp exports in Bangladesh dropped from 25,742 tonnes to 18,630 tonnes in 1997–1998 (Debnath et al., 2014). The first recorded outbreak of WSSV in the Americas was at a farm in Texas in November 1995 (Lightner et al., 1997). In 1999 WSSV first appeared in Panama and within two months the disease spread north to Honduras and Guatemsala.

In late 1999, WSSV spread in Ecuador (Chakraborty and Ghosh, 2014) therefore drastically down their shrimp export (nearly 70%) (Walker and Mohan, 2009). It was anticipated that the reasons behind this rapid spread are mainly due to the potency of the virus, lack of its awareness and prevention, global expansion of the industry and increasing intensive shrimp farming practices (Chakraborty and Ghosh, 2014). WSSV also reached Spain and Australia in 2000-2001. In both cases, successful containment and eradication were reported and for both events (OIE, 2013)

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Source : A critical review on White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV): A potential threat to shrimp farming inBangladesh and some Asian countries

 

 

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Ossicle Morphology of Sandfish (Holothuria scabra) Across Maturity Stages | InformativeBD

Jason N. Tersol, Maribel V. Gabuyo, Lymuel May M. Palmones, Fraxie D. Manipon, and John Raymund D. Torres, from the different institute of Philippines. wrote a Research Article about, Ossicle Morphology of Sandfish (Holothuria scabra) Across Maturity Stages. Entitled, Ossicle morphology of Sandfish (Holothuria scabra Jaeger) at different stages of maturity. This research paper published by the International Journal of Biosciences (IJB). an open access scholarly research journal on Biosciences. under the affiliation of the International Network For Natural Sciences| INNSpub. an open access multidisciplinary research journal publisher.

Abstract

Holothuria scabra Jaeger was investigated for its ossicle morphology by the use of spicule analysis. Buttons, tables, and rods are the most observable ossicles in all weight ranges. Different kinds of rod ossicles such as I-shape rods, spiny branched rods, and less spiny branched rods were observed in some weights. Weights ranged in 20-59g, 60-89g, and 90g and above respectively. I-shape rods was observed in the ventral region of specimens weighing 65g, and 93g, while it was also observed in the dorsal region of specimen weighing 252g. Both spiny and less spiny branched rods were observed mostly on the specimens weighing 40g, and 50g. Other ossicles observed were branched rods, ring-like ossicle, and ellipsoid in buttons. Results obtained in this study show that buttons are the most abundant ossicle observed in the adult stage of H. scabra Jaeger. It is advised that future research use samples weighing between 20 and 250 grams to examine the ossicle formations present on these weights, measure the sizes of the ossicles to be observed with the suggested weights of sample species, and conduct additional sampling from other sites to determine whether a particular ossicle morphology first appears at a particular stage of maturity and may be absent in succeeding stages of maturity.

Read more : Hormonal Shifts in Fatherhood: The Oxytocin-Testosterone Connection | InformativeBD

Introduction

Sea cucumbers are benthic marine invertebrates that belong to the taxonomic class Holothuroidea that fall under the Phylum Echinodermata (Al- Yagout et al., 2021). They are related to other well-known echinoderms such as sea stars, sea urchins, and sand dollars (Ross, 2019). These marine invertebrates are elongated or cylindrical in shape, resembling a large cucumber plant that contains a single branched gonad, and has leathery and spiny skin (Pangestuti & Arifin, 2017; Ross, 2019; Susetya et al., 2020). Benthic organisms like sea cucumbers have an importance on the ecosystem. Ecologically, they recycle benthic organic matter through the consumption of sediments, sea grasses, organic detritus, and produce fecal (Dar & Ahmad, 2006; Wolkenhauer et al., 2010). Some sea cucumbers, like those which belong to the genera Holothuria, Actinopyga, and Bohadschia, are edible and commonly a source of food (Torres et al., 2019). The body walls, gonads and intestines of these marine creatures are consumed because of their nutritional values (Purcell et al., 2012). Some studies have also shown multiple biological properties of sea cucumbers (Althunibat et al., 2009; Bordbar et al., 2011; Mamelona & Pelletier, 2010; Torres et al., 2021). Aside from being a source of food, these marine organisms have also been used as a medicinal ingredient since ancient times (Mohsen & Yang, 2021). Since the sea cucumbers are utilized as food and medicine, overexploitation 2 of the species might lead to them being endangered and in worst cases, might become extinct.

Sea cucumbers or Holothurians are diverse and consist of six orders and nearly 1,400 species (Dabbagh & Sedaghat, 2012). In the Philippines, the species of sea cucumbers are highly diverse, which is threatened by overfishing and habitat loss (Pitogo et al., 2018). There are 170 species identified in the country wherein 25 to 41 species of these are mostly from the members of the families Holothuroidea and Stichopodidea and they are commercially valued wherein they are commonly exploited for trade (Gamboa et al., 2004; Jontila et al., 2014; Olavides et al., 2010). Meanwhile, sea cucumbers are also traded for aquarium purposes (Bordbar et al., 2011). In China, there are about 20 species of edible sea cucumbers that have been considered as traditional medicine and tonic food for many years. Nutrient analysis shows that the body wall and intestines of sea cucumbers have a high nutrient value (Conand, 2004). Most of the commercially important sea cucumbers have been fished with increasing intensity (Wolkenhauer et al., 2010). They are vulnerable to harvesting because of their high abundance and easy access to their habitats (Purcell et al., 2012).

Sea cucumbers have unique names from different places. “Beche-de-mer” is a French word that means marine food product. Locally, sea cucumbers are known as “balat” or “balatan”. It is also known as “balat kagisan” or “putian” (Perez, 2011). Dried sea cucumbers are known as “trepang” in Indonesia.

One of the species of sea cucumbers is the Holothuria scabra Jaeger. It is considered one of the most commercially valuable species for beche-de-mer production and has been widely fished in the tropics. Beche-de-mer is processed from sea cucumbers 3 belonging to the families Holothuroidea and Stichopodidea. These species are distributed worldwide as found in the Indo- West Pacific region including the Islands of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, and Madagascar, Red Sea, Southeast Arabia, the Persian Gulf, West coast of India and Pakistan, Maldives, and the Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, the East Indies, North Australia, the Philippines, China, Southern Japan, South Pacific Islands and the Hawaiian Islands (Dabbagh et al., 2012). The A-grade classification of beche-de-mer from sandfish (Holothuria scabra Jaeger) commands one of the highest prices on the international market (Agudo, 2006). Due to global overexploitation by intensive commercial extraction, they are listed as endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Most heavily exploited sea cucumber populations suffer rapid declines in their abundance and population densities with the onset of commercial exploitation. The declining numbers of sea cucumbers have serious consequences in the ecosystem such as habitat structure alteration, as they are the seas’ bioturbators and recyclers (Wolkenhauer et al., 2010).

Holothuria scabra Jaeger is commonly known as sandfish because of its ability to thrive in calm sandy or muddy coastal areas. They are characterized to tolerate low saline environments and are sometimes found to proliferate in some estuarine environments (Junus et al., 2018). Sandfish (Holothuria scabra) move with the help of tube feet densely distributed on the ventral surface of the body wall and also through muscular action of the body wall (Hame et al., 2001). Echinoderms may be able to thrive as a result of this to interact with the surroundings from every angle (Yoshimura et al., 2012). 

Sandfish (Holothuria scabra Jaeger) undergo a metamorphic phase that transforms from larva to adult and undergoes a complex development and regeneration of internal 4 organs. The newly emerged juveniles sink to the bottom in order to complete their development and take on the adult form but will continue to grow until they reach the full adult size (Al-Rashdi et al., 2012). The morphological features used to identify holothurian species are the ossicles. Sea cucumbers have ossicles that form part of their skeleton. The ossicles are small parts of iron-rich calcified materials that are made of calcium carbonate which are infused with the tissue and covered by the epidermis. It varies on shape and size which creates a diversity of species. Some studies stated that describing the morphology of ossicle formation or shapes is useful for species identification and is necessary for establishing extensive data for characterizing the sea cucumber species (Kamarudin et al., 2017; Torres et al., 2019). Their shapes, in fact, have continued to be an important characteristic for the morphological identification of sea cucumbers (Torres et al., 2019). According to Sticker (1986), among the shapes of ossicles include perforated rods, buttons, and tables. The formation of the ossicles occurs on the multinucleated syncytia of sclerocytes on the dermal layer of the body wall (Sticker, 1986). The ossicles of sea cucumbers occur scattered throughout the dermal layer of the body wall. Presumably, it helps to increase the overall stiffness of the body wall. Ossicles could lead to such a stiffening by acting analogously to the various types of biological “filler particles” that have been studied in other invertebrates. Aside from probably increasing the overall stiffness of the body wall, these ossicles may form discrete coverings that help to protect internal structures from mechanical damage. Furthermore, ossicles may also function as antipredatory devices by making juvenile and adult sea cucumbers less palatable (Sticker, 1986).

According to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Asia is the world’s leading supplier of sea cucumber, accounting for roughly 93 percent of global production. Southeast Asia represents the global market “hotspots” for sea cucumber trade due to their known “mega biodiversity”. Many sea cucumbers are gathered for human consumption and some are cultivated in aquaculture systems (Pangestuti & Arifin, 2017). The number of commercially exploited species varies widely, with the highest number of species in Asia (52 species) and Pacific (36 species) regions, partially due to the higher natural diversity in these areas. The majority of sea cucumbers are exported for the bechede-mer market, with a few species for the live trade (aquarium) market (Han et al., 2016). The Philippines was already recognized as one of the largest exporters of commercially important sea cucumber species for many years (Torres, 2015). However, in spite of its growing local and international trade and the spread of some information for their utilization, there is still a dearth of knowledge on their systematics and macro biota (Macfadyen et al., 2009). Information about most holothuroid species’ biology and ecology is still limited in our country (Torres, 2015; Torres et al., 2019). References on sea cucumber species are only confined to local descriptions in the Philippines, according to reports. It is also difficult to compare studies because different regional names are utilized (Torres et al., 2019). According to a report by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), sea cucumber species are vulnerable to exploitation and extinction due to a lack of information, which is usually manifested by a decrease in the number of catches, particularly for commercially important species found near the described mainland fishing areas (Brown et al., 2010).

Age is important for animal biology and is fundamental for estimating baseline parameters such as growth rate, population age structure productivity, mortality rate, and recruitment (Sun et al., 2019). The body weight and size of the sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra Jaeger) sub-adult stage can be distinguished. Sexually mature sea cucumbers, on the other hand, are difficult to identify only by their weight and size, however, most developed sea cucumbers weigh around 250 grams. The size when they reach sexual maturity varies by region (Hamel et al., 2001; Purcell et al., 2012). Since sea cucumbers are commonly poached or illegally traded, there is a need for confirmation and establish a standardized fast, easy to be applied and cheap protocol for taxonomic identification such as spicule analysis to effectively evaluate traded marine organisms, especially in the processed state of sea cucumber. It is therefore important to confirm and to study if the ossicle morphology is changing during the stages of maturity of Holothuria scabra Jaeger in order to provide a guide for developing fishery management plans, conservation, or recovery strategies. Spicule analysis is a different approach to characterize a sea cucumber based on the morphology of ossicles. It was reported that these ossicles can remain undamaged and fully distinguishable even if the sea cucumber is already in a processed state (Torres et al., 2019).

In this light, the researchers aimed to contribute to describing and distinguishing the morphology of ossicles present in the dorsal and ventral regions of Holothuria scabra Jaeger in order to determine if there is a change in the ossicle morphology as the sandfish matures.

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Source : Ossicle morphology of Sandfish (Holothuria scabra Jaeger) at different stages of maturity

 

 

 

 

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Hormonal Shifts in Fatherhood: The Oxytocin-Testosterone Connection | InformativeBD

Mohamed Aalilil,  Amit Jain,  and Mirza Masroor Ali Beg, from the different institute of Kyrgyzstan and India. wrote a Research Article about, Hormonal Shifts in Fatherhood: The Oxytocin-Testosterone Connection. entitled, Interplay between oxytocin and testosterone hormonal shift during fatherhood: A review article. This research paper published by the International International Journal of Biosciences (IJB). an open access scholarly research journal on Biosciences. under the affiliation of the International Network For Natural Sciences| INNSpub. an open access multidisciplinary research journal publisher.

Abstract

The interplay between oxytocin and testosterone level depicted a considerable evidences that to use as background to examine the behavioral adaptations of male during the perinatal period. Oxytocin is evident as bonding hormone is the important for fostering social connection, responsiveness, and fostering behaviors while testosterone is usually associated with effectiveness, supremacy, and aggression. It has been revealed that the hormonal swing in men during their partner’s pregnancy and postnatal period suggested rise in oxytocin is linked with lower testosterone level. These changes likely to bring the caregiving behaviors, diminish aggression, and improve emotional connections with the newborn, presenting an evolutionary approach for cooperative parenting. Present review synthesizes endocrinology, anthropology, and psychology findings to explore the mechanisms driving these changes, their behavioral outcomes, and their implications for fatherhood. Furthermore, the article investigates, how these hormonal shifts shape paternal caregiving and influence family dynamics and compare them to similar arrangements in other species. By exploratory biological and societal dimensions, this work provides all-inclusive impression of the hormonal fundamentals of paternal behavior and neural shift during fatherhood.

Read more : Growth Dynamics of Achatina fulica in a Controlled Breeding Environment | InformativeBD

Introduction

In all mammalian species, the steroid testosterone (T) and neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) enable psychophysiological changes necessary for the establishment of parental care (Ziegler and Snowdon, 2000). Mothers are frequently linked to hormonal changes during pregnancy and the postpartum period, but there is mounting evidence that men also experience significant hormonal changes (Gettler et al., 2011).

Oxytocin has been linked to sensitive fathering responses in both humans and animals, and it initiates and modulates parental behavior in many species (Horrell et al., 2021). The interaction between oxytocin and testosterone has become a crucial area of scientific study among these hormonal changes (Feldman, 2015; Gordon et al., 2017). Oxytocin, bonding hormone is a neuropeptide released by the posterior pituitary gland played important role in social bonding, trust and caregiving behaviors (Feldman, 2015; Carter, 2014).

In the perspective of parenting, oxytocin enriches a father's ability to form emotional relations with their child, promoting nurturing and caring behaviors (Gordon et al., 2017). The distinct behavioral collection that characterizes human maternal and paternal care has been allied with oxytocin (Gordon et al., 2010). During interactions, oxytocin is linked to more affectionate touch and social gaze in mothers, whereas it is linked to greater pleasant arousal and stimulation in fathers (Feldman et al., 2010). Peripheral oxytocin levels in human plasma and saliva have been linked to early parenting behaviors, such as how mothers and fathers provide care (Gordon et al., 2011). Positive paternal behavior in human fathers was associated with a decrease in testosterone throughout the transition to motherhood (Perini et al., 2012; Fleming et al., 2002). Compared to men with higher testosterone levels, those with lower testosterone levels showed more empathy and a greater desire to react to their baby's cries (Fleming et al., 2002). The trade-off between mating and parenting has been proposed to be supported by testosterone variations in males throughout the transition to fatherhood (Gettler et al., 2011; Gettler et al., 2013).

However, during the perinatal period, fathers experience a measurable decline in testosterone levels, which is hypothesized to reduce aggressive tendencies and prioritize caregiving (Feldman and Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2017). 

Furthermore, males with greater testosterone levels show less emotional touch toward their infant, express less sympathy when the newborn cries for unknown reasons (Fleming et al., 2002; Weisman et al., 2014), and are not as much involved in maternal care (Mascaro et al., 2013), which may reflect declined empathic rejoining to children's needs. Oxytocin is also complex in responsiveness and passion processing (Bartz et al., 2011). The perceived inverse association between oxytocin and testosterone hormones during fatherhood proposes a biologically embedded mechanism aimed at recalibrating male behaviors to nurture family cohesion and effective parenting (Feldman, 2015). Hormonal regulation not only plays important role in paternal caregiving but also agreements valuable insights into broader social and evolutionary contexts (Feldman, 2015; Gordon et al., 2017). The present review article summarized the hormonal shifting and neural adaptations in the Brain during fatherhood.

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Source : Interplay between oxytocin and testosterone hormonal shift during fatherhood: A review article    

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